Synthetic apolipoproteins, and related compositions methods and systems for nanolipoprotein particles formation

ABSTRACT

Synthetic apolipoproteins based on native/naturally occurring homolog proteins can be prepared using solid-phase peptide synthesis approaches combined with native chemical ligation methods to create analogs of full length apolipoproteins. The chemical synthesis is expected to allow introduction of non-natural amino acids, e.g., α,α′-dialkyl amino acids, with a periodicity that encourages both helix formation and amphipathicity. Such apolipoprotein analogs are expected to encourage, in some embodiments, facile and more complete NLP formation, enabling consideration of full spectrum of nanoparticle-based biotechnology applications ranging from therapeutic sequestration and delivery to energy/biofuel production to biopolymer production.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/217,316, entitled “Synthetic Apolipoproteins, and related Compositions Methods and Systems for Nanolipoprotein Particles Formation” filed on Sep. 11, 2015 with docket number IL-12402, the content of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT GRANT

The invention was made with Government support under Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344 between the U.S. Department of Energy and Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC, for the operation of Lawrence Livermore National Security. The Government may have certain rights to the invention.

FIELD

The present disclosure relates to nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs) and, in particular, to synthetic apolipoproteins and related methods and systems for nanolipoprotein particles formation.

BACKGROUND

Nanolipoprotein particles are nanometer-sized particles usually comprised of an amphipathic lipid bilayer and an apolipoprotein. NLPs assembled with human apolipoproteins have been used for various biotechnology applications, such as membrane protein stabilization/solubilization, drug delivery, and diagnostic imaging.

In some instances, NLPs can self-assemble under appropriate conditions into nano-scale amphipathic apolipoproteins-stabilized lipid bilayer particles possibly comprising additional molecules, such as one or more integral membrane proteins or other proteins and molecules attached to the amphipathic component of the NLP. The self-assembled particles are typically formed by an apolipoprotein encircling a nanometer scale lipid bilayer defining a nanolipoprotein particle.

Despite the advancement of this technology, providing NLPs including desired functionalities and/or with a desired stability can be challenging.

SUMMARY

Provided herein, are synthetic apolipoproteins, membrane forming lipids and related NLP fabrication/formation, methods and systems. In particular, in some embodiments the methods and systems herein disclosed allow the chemical synthesis of apolipoproteins and combining with lipids to form NLPs.

According to a first aspect, a synthetic apolipoprotein is provided. The synthetic apolipoprotein comprises a plurality of helical segments each having a primary structure configured to form an alpha helix secondary structure wherein at least one helical segment of the plurality of helical segments comprises a plurality of hydrophobic amino acids and a plurality of hydrophilic amino acids positioned in the primary structure to provide an amphipathic alpha helix secondary structure wherein the plurality of hydrophobic amino acids form an hydrophobic helix face and the plurality of hydrophilic amino acids form an opposing hydrophilic helix face and wherein at least one helical segment comprises one or more non-natural α,α′-dialkyl amino acids within the hydrophobic helical face.

According to a second aspect, a synthetic apolipoprotein is provided. The synthetic apolipoprotein comprises a plurality of helical segments each having a primary structure configured to form an alpha helix secondary structure wherein at least one helical segment of the plurality of helical segment comprises a plurality of hydrophobic amino acids and a plurality of hydrophilic amino acids, the plurality of hydrophobic amino acids comprising at least one α,α′-dialkyl amino acid, the plurality of hydrophobic amino acids positioned in the primary structure with a periodicity i_(o)+x_(o) where i_(o) is a recurring position of a hydrophobic amino acid of plurality of hydrophobic amino acids in the primary structure and x₀ is a number of amino acids in the helical segment between a first occurrence and a second occurrence of the recurring position i_(o), the plurality of hydrophilic amino acids positioned in the primary structure with a periodicity i_(i)+x_(i) where i_(i) is a recurring position of a hydrophilic amino acid of the plurality of hydrophilic amino acids in the primary structure and x_(i) is a number of amino acids in the helical segment between a first occurrence and a second occurrence of the recurring position i_(i) and wherein x_(o) and x_(i) are independently an integer from 3 to 9.

According to a third aspect, a nanolipoprotein particle (NLP) is described, comprising a membrane forming lipid, and a scaffold protein, wherein the scaffold protein is a synthetic apolipoprotein herein described.

According to a fourth aspect, a method and system to provide a synthetic apolipoprotein is described. The method comprises synthesizing a plurality of helical segments, each helical segment comprising a plurality of hydrophobic amino acid and a plurality of hydrophilic amino acid, each helical segment having a primary structure configured to form an amphipathic alpha helical secondary structure in which the plurality of hydrophobic amino acids form a hydrophobic cluster or helical face and the plurality of hydrophilic amino acid form a hydrophilic cluster or helical face. Each helical segment has an N-terminal end and a C-terminal end. The method further comprises, ligating the plurality of alpha-helical segments through the N-terminal end or the C-terminal end to form a synthetic apolipoprotein via at least one synthetic chemical linkage. In the method at least one helical segment of the plurality of helical segment comprises one or more α,α′-dialkyl amino acids within the hydrophobic cluster or helical face. The system comprises at least two of a plurality of hydrophobic amino acid comprising one or more α,α′-dialkyl amino acids, a plurality of hydrophilic amino acid and optionally additional reagents for simultaneous combined or sequential use in the method herein described.

According to a fifth aspect, a method and system to form nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs) are provided. The method comprises synthesizing a synthetic apolipoprotein according to a method herein described. The method also comprises, combining the synthetic apolipoprotein with membrane forming lipids to form a nanolipoprotein particle. The system comprises at least two of one or more synthetic apolipoproteins herein described, membrane forming lipids and optionally one or more target proteins or additional reagents for simultaneous combined or sequential use in the method herein described.

Synthetic apolipoproteins herein described can provide in several embodiments apolipoproteins with amphipathicity and conformational/helical stability, which can be used in several embodiments to provide stable and/or high size nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs).

Synthetic apolipoproteins, nanolipoprotein particles and related methods and systems herein described can be used in some embodiments in connection with various applications wherein control of the NLP size is desired, for example to accommodate and facilitate isolation of functional biosynthetic enzyme complexes ranging from biopolymer synthesis [e.g., polysaccharides (cellulose), polyesters, polyamides, polyisoprenes and additional enzymes identifiable by a skilled person] to photon capture [PS II].

Synthetic apolipoproteins, nanolipoproteinparticles (NLPs) and related methods and systems herein described can be used in some embodiments in connection with NLP configured to isolate, stabilize and/or solubilize membrane proteins.

Synthetic apolipoproteins, nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs) and related methods and systems herein described can be used in some embodiments in connection with NLP configured as a vehicle for delivery of compounds such as therapeutics to a specific target destination and facilitating crossing or passage through the blood-brain barrier (BBB).

Synthetic apolipoproteins, nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs) and related methods and systems herein described can be used in some embodiments in connection with NLP configured as a platform for vaccine development and use.

Synthetic apolipoproteins, nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs) and related methods and systems herein described can be used in some embodiments in connection with NLP configured as a platform for immnostimulating agents.

Synthetic apolipoproteins, nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs) and related methods and systems herein described can be used in some embodiments in connection with NLP configured as a vehicle for scavenging molecular entities.

Synthetic apolipoproteins, nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs) and related methods and systems herein described can be used in some embodiments in connection with NLP comprising synthetic apolipoproteins designed to dimerize or multimerise, e.g., to augment their flexibility in terms of defining various particles' sizes.

Synthetic apolipoproteins, nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs) and related methods and systems herein described can be used in some embodiments in connection with NLP comprising synthetic apolipoproteins designed to contain cell-targeting moieties.

Synthetic apolipoproteins, nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs) and related methods and systems herein described can be used in some embodiments in connection with chemical synthesis of apolipoproteins allowing for realistic scale-up and manufacturing complete with documentation needed to satisfy regulatory considerations and compliance issues prior to possible FDA filing.

Synthetic apolipoproteins, nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs) and related methods and systems herein described can be applied in several fields including basic biology research, applied biology, bio-engineering, bio-energy, medical research, medical diagnostics, therapeutics, bio-fuels, and in additional fields where NLPs may be used.

The details of one or more embodiments of the disclosure are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated into and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate one or more embodiments of the present disclosure and, together with the detailed description and example sections, serve to explain the principles and implementations of the disclosure. Exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure will become more fully understood from the detailed description and the accompanying drawings, wherein:

FIG. 1 shows a generic helical wheel representation of aprotein alpha helix structure according to embodiments herein described. In particular FIG. 1 shows a cartoon illustration of six putative helix positions a, b, c, d, e, f, and g, on a helical wheel representation.

FIG. 2 provides a cartoon representation of helical bundles of Apolipoprotein E4, 22 k fragment structure derived from the published protein crystal structure. The four different helical segments are shown in different markings.

FIG. 3 provides an example of the amino acid sequences of the four helical segments of Apolipoprotein E4, 22 k fragment (SEQ ID NO: 11), which is capable of forming NLP structures.

FIG. 4 provides a schematic illustration of a chemical ligation method to ligate helical segments together to create a helical bundle protein.

FIG. 5 provides a helical wheel representation of Helix #1, residues 24-52, of Apolipoprotein E4, 22 k fragment. Amino acids with a similar degree of hydrophobicity and side chain dimensions are indicated with a same marking.

FIG. 6 provides a helical wheel representation of Helix #2, residues 54-82, of Apolipoprotein E4, 22 k fragment. Amino acids with a similar degree of hydrophobicity and side chain dimensions are indicated with a same marking.

FIG. 7 provides a helical wheel representation of Helix #3, residues 86-126, of Apolipoprotein E4, 22 k fragment. Amino acids with a similar degree of hydrophobicity and side chain dimensions are indicated with a same marking.

FIG. 8 provides a helical wheel representation of Helix #4, residues 129-165, of Apolipoprotein E4, 22 k fragment. Amino acids with a similar degree of hydrophobicity and side chain dimensions are indicated with a same marking.

FIG. 9 provides a cartoon representation of a nanolipoprotein particle (NLP) showing helical strands/segments of apolipoprotein with different segments shown with different markings, surrounding a population of phospholipids shown as a dotted area.

FIG. 10 shows modeling and molecular dynamics computer simulations of apolipoprotein/DMPC NLPs sizes; the apolipoproteins are helical motifs in the simulated image; realistic and/or putative structures are realizable for particles between 14.5 nm and 28 nm scale bar from AFM imaging—10 nm. In the cartoon representation on the bottom of the figure different helical segment of the apolipoprotein are indicated with different markings.

FIG. 11 provides models of NLPs with and without an integral membrane protein. In particular FIG. 11A shows a model of a Nanolipoprotein particle (NLP) with a lipid bilayer and apolipoproteins white cylinders encircling the hydrophobic portion of the lipids (black circles and dotted area); FIG. 11B shows a NLP modeled with an integral membrane protein monomer (cylinders marked with horizontal lines) inserted in the hydrophobic lipid core (black circles and dotted area). FIG. 11C A NLP modeled with an integral membrane protein trimer (cylinders marked with horizontal lines) inserted in the hydrophobic lipid core (black circles).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Provided herein are synthetic apolipoproteins designed to be used in formation of nanolipoprotein particles (NLP) and related NLPs, methods and systems to form NLPs.

The term “synthetic” as used herein indicates any product and/or process which cannot be found in nature. In particular, the term synthetic indicates any product and/or process that involves practices common to synthetic organic chemistry and encompass any chemical bond forming process, e.g., amide bond formation, and related products. Accordingly, synthetic molecules comprise molecules that can include chemical moieties not present in the naturally occurring molecules and molecules comprising portions that are naturally occurring and portions that chemically synthesized.

The term “apolipoprotein” as used herein indicates an amphipathic protein that binds lipids to form lipoproteins. The term “amphipathic” pertains to a molecule containing both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties. Exemplary amphipathic molecules comprise, a molecule having hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions/portions in its structure. Examples of biomolecules which are amphipathic include but not limited to phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, fatty acids, bile acids, saponins, and additional lipids identifiable by a skilled person.

The term “protein” as used herein indicates a polypeptide with a particular secondary and tertiary structure that can interact with another molecule and in particular, with other biomolecules including other proteins, DNA, RNA, lipids, metabolites, hormones, chemokines, and/or small molecules. The term “polypeptide” as used herein indicates an organic linear, circular, or branched polymer composed of two or more amino acid monomers and/or analogs thereof. The term “polypeptide” includes amino acid polymers of any length including full length proteins and peptides, as well as analogs and fragments thereof. A polypeptide of three or more amino acids is also called a protein oligomer, peptide, or oligopeptide. In particular, the terms “peptide” and “oligopeptide” usually indicate a polypeptide with less than 100 amino acid monomers. In particular, in a protein, the polypeptide provides the primary structure of the protein, wherein the term “primary structure” of a protein refers to the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain covalently linked to form the polypeptide polymer. A protein “sequence” indicates the order of the amino acids that form the primary structure. Covalent bonds between amino acids within the primary structure can include peptide bonds or disulfide bonds, and additional bonds identifiable by a skilled person. Polypeptides in the sense of the present disclosure are usually composed of a linear chain of alpha-amino acid residues covalently linked by peptide bond or a synthetic covalent linkage. The two ends of the linear polypeptide chain encompassing the terminal residues and the adjacent segment are referred to as the carboxyl terminus (C-terminus) and the amino terminus (N-terminus) based on the nature of the free group on each extremity. Unless otherwise indicated, counting of residues in a polypeptide is performed from the N-terminal end (NH₂-group), which is the end where the amino group is not involved in a peptide bond to the C-terminal end (—COOH group) which is the end where a COOH group is not involved in a peptide bond. Proteins and polypeptides can be identified by x-ray crystallography, direct sequencing, immuno precipitation, and a variety of other methods as understood by a person skilled in the art. Proteins can be provided in vitro or in vivo by several methods identifiable by a skilled person. In some instances where the proteins are synthetic proteins in at least a portion of the polymer two or more amino acid monomers and/or analogs thereof are joined through chemically-mediated condensation of an organic acid (—COOH) and an amine (—NH₂) to form an amide bond or a “peptide” bond.

A“lipoprotein” as used herein indicates a biomolecule assembly that contains both proteins and lipids. In particular, in lipoproteins, the protein component surrounds or solubilizes the lipid molecules enabling particle formation. Exemplary lipoproteins include the plasma lipoprotein particles classified under high-density (HDL) and low-density (LDL) lipoproteins, which enable fats to be carried in the blood stream, the transmembrane proteins of the mitochondrion and the chloroplast, and bacterial lipoproteins. In particular, the lipid components of lipoproteins are insoluble in water, but because of their amphipathic properties, apolipoproteins such as certain Apolipoproteins A and Apolipoproteins B and other amphipathic protein molecules can surround the lipids, creating the lipoprotein particle that is itself water-soluble, and can thus be carried through water-based circulation (e.g., blood, lymph in vivo or in vitro).

Apolipoproteins known to provide the protein components of the lipoproteins can be divided into six classes and several sub-classes, based on the different structures and functions. Exemplary apolipoprotein known to be able to form lipoproteins comprise Apolipoproteins A (apo A-I, apo A-II, apo A-IV, and apo A-V), Apolipoproteins B (apo B48 and apo B100), Apolipoproteins C (apo C-I, apo C-II, apo C-II, and apo C-IV), Apolipoproteins D, Apolipoproteins E, and Apolipoproteins H. For example apolipoproteins B can form low-density lipoprotein particles, and have mostly beta-sheet structure and associate with lipid droplets irreversibly, while Apolipoprotein A1 comprise alpha helices and can associate with lipid droplets reversibly forming high-density lipoprotein particles.

In embodiments herein described, synthetic apolipoproteins are provided which are apolipoproteins that comprise at least one non-natural amino acid and/or amino acid residues linked together by a series of peptide or amide bonds. The latter will be formed using established chemical synthetic methods which are identifiable by a skilled person.

As used herein the term “amino acid”, “amino acidic monomer”, or “amino acid residue” refers to organic compounds composed of amine and carboxylic acid functional groups, along with a side-chain specific to each amino acid. In particular, alpha- or α-amino acid refers to organic compounds composed of amine (—NH2) and carboxylic acid (—COOH), and a side-chain specific to each amino acid connected to an alpha carbon. Different amino acids have different side chains and have distinctive characteristics, such as charge, polarity, aromaticity, reduction potential, hydrophobicity, and pKa. Amino acids can be covalently linked to form a polymer through peptide bonds by reactions between the amine group of a first amino acid and the carboxylic acid group of a second amino acid. Amino acid in the sense of the disclosure refers to any of the twenty naturally occurring amino acids, non-natural amino acids, and includes both D an L optical isomers.

The term “non-natural amino acids” or “artificial amino acids” indicate not naturally encoded or found in the genetic code of any organisms and typically comprise non-proteinogenic amino acids that either occur naturally or are chemically synthesized. Accordingly, non-natural amino acids comprise molecules that can be coupled together using standard amino acid coupling chemistry, and that have molecular structures that do not resemble the naturally occurring amino acids. Exemplary non-natural amino acids comprise e.g., α,α′-dialkyl-amino acids such as amino isobutyric acid (Aib) or cyclopentyl glycine and analogs of naturally occurring amino acids. The term “amino acid analog” refers to an amino acid in which one or more individual atoms have been replaced, either with a different atom, isotope, or with a different functional group but is otherwise identical to original amino acid from which the analog is derived. (Lam, K. S. et al., 1997. Anticancer Drug Des. 1997 Apr. 12(3): 145-67).

A synthetic “covalent linkage” as used herein indicates a stable chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. In particular, covalent linkage between natural and non natural amino acid in polypeptide described herein is typically defined as an amide bond. The latter involves specific chemical activation of the —COOH group utilizing a variety of activating groups and directed condensation with an amino group; the elimination of water (condensation reaction) results in a stable amide bond. In the context of polypeptide or protein synthesis the amide bond is referred to as a peptide bond.

Accordingly, synthetic apolipoproteins can be provided by using process such as conventional solid-phase peptide chemistry (SPPS) or Merrifield peptide synthesis and additional methods that allow chemical conjugation and ligation of amino acids as will be understood by a skilled person. This approach and detailed method descriptions have been documented thoroughly in the scientific literature (Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis, J M Stewart & J D Young, Pierce Chemical Company, 1984).

In some embodiments, a synthetic apolipoprotein can comprise a plurality of helical peptide segments each having a primary structure configured to form an alpha helix secondary structure.

The term “segment” or “domain” as related to the protein indicates any continuous part of a protein sequence from single amino acid up to the full protein associated to an identifiable structure within the protein. An “identifiable structure” in the sense of the disclosure indicates a spatial arrangement of the primary structure or portions thereof which can be detected by techniques such as crystallography, hydrophobicity analysis or additional techniques known by a skilled person. In some instances, a protein segment can comprise one or more secondary structures of the protein.

The “secondary structure” of a protein refers to local sub-structures with a repeating geometry identifiable within crystal structure of the protein, circular dichroism or by additional techniques identifiable by a skilled person. In some instances, a secondary structure of a protein can be identified by the patterns of hydrogen bonds between backbone amino and carboxyl groups. Secondary structures can also be defined based on a regular, repeating, geometry, being constrained to approximate values of the dihedral angles ψ and φ of the amino acids in the secondary structure unit on the Ramachandran plot. Two main types of secondary structure are the alpha helix and the beta strand or beta sheets as will be identifiable by a skilled person. Both the alpha helix and the beta sheet represent a way of establishing non-covalent hydrogen bonds between constituents of the peptide backbone, thus forming secondary structural features. Secondary structure formation can be promoted by formation of hydrogen bonds between backbone atoms. Amino acids that can minimize formation of a secondary structure by destabilizing the structure of the hydrogen bonding interactions are referred to as secondary structure breakers. Amino acids that can promote formation of a secondary structure by stabilizing formation of hydrogen bonding interactions are referred to as structure makers.

The term “alpha helix” or “α-helix” indicates a right-hand-coiled or spiral conformation (helix) of a polypeptide in which every backbone N—H group donates a hydrogen bond to the backbone C═O group of the amino acid four residues earlier facilitating hydrogen bonding. The alpha helix is a common secondary structure of proteins and is also sometimes called a classic Pauling-Corey-Branson alpha helix. The name 3.6₁₃-helix is also used for this type of helix, denoting the number of residues per helical turn, and 13 atoms being involved in the ring formed by the hydrogen bond.

In some embodiments, the natural and/or non-natural amino acids are positioned in a primary structure of the synthetic apolipoprotein to provide and facilitate amphipathic alpha helix formation.

The “amphipathic helix” indicates an alpha helix characterized by a spatial segregation of hydrophobic and hydrophilic amino acid residues in hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions typically located on opposite faces of the helix which renders the alpha helix amphipathic. The clustered nonpolar residues can then stabilize and encourage lipid molecules to form lipoprotein complexes and stabilize lipid bilayer conformations underpinning the NLP nanoconstruct.

Hydrophilic amino acids are amino acid that are considered to be soluble in water and have polar side chains, e.g. comprising —COOH, —OH, —NH₃, groups and other groups identifiable by a skilled person. Exemplary hydrophilic amino acid comprise polar or charged amino acid (e.g. polar naturally occurring amino acid serine (Ser), threonine (Thr), asparagine (Asn), glutamine (Gln), and tyrosine (Tyr); and charged naturally occurring amino acid such as lysine (Lys) (+), arginine (Arg) (+), aspartate (Asp) (−) and glutamate (Glu) (−). Hydrophobic amino acids are amino acids that have aliphatic or saturated hydrocarbon side chains (e.g natural occurring glycine (Gly), alanine (Ala), valine (Val), leucine (Leu), isoleucine (Ile), proline (Pro), phenylalanine (Phe), methionine (Met), and tryptophan (Trp). Polar amino acid can also be involved in hydrogen bond.

In particular, in embodiments herein described, one or more non-natural amino acid can be included in at least one helical segment of the synthetic apolipoprotein. In particular, in some embodiments at least one and possibly a plurality of α,α′-dialkyl-amino acids such as amino isobutyric acid (Aib) or cyclopentyl glycine or derivative thereof can be comprised in at least one helical segment of the apolipoprotein herein described.

“α,α′-dialkyl-amino acids” indicate non-natural amino acids wherein the alpha carbon of the amino acid is substitute by two alkyl groups, which can be substituted or unsubstituted C1-C6 linear or branched hydrocarbon chains In particular, exemplary alkyl chains comprise methyl, ethyl, propyl and the like but also benzyl, 2-phenylethyl, fluoromethyl, chloromethyl, methoxymethyl, 2-methoxyethyl, ethoxymethyl, and additional alkyl chains identifiable by a skilled person.

Derivatives of α,α′-disubstituted amino acids include α,α′-dialkyl-amino acids modified to include additional groups or moieties while preserving the biological and chemical activities associated to the dialkyl groups presented on the alpha carbon of the disubstituted amino acid. Exemplary derivatives of α,α′-disubstituted amino acid comprise Cyclic Quaternary α-Amino Acids such as: Boc-2-aminoisobutyric acid, Fmoc-2-aminoisobutyric acid, Fmoc-aMe-D-Asp(OtBu)-OH, (R)-Fmoc-2-amino-2-methyl-succinic acid-4-tert-butyl ester, Fmoc-aMe-L-Asp(OtBu)-OH, (S)-Fmoc-2-amino-2-methyl-succinic acid-4-tert-butyl ester, Boc-α-methyl-L-phenylalanine, Fmoc-α-methyl-L-phenylalanine, Boc-α-methyl-D-4-bromophenylalanine, Fmoc-α-methyl-D-4-bromophenylalanine, Boc-α-methyl-L-4-bromophenylalanine, Fmoc-α-methyl-L-4-bromophenylalanine, Boc-1-amino-cyclopropane carboxylic acid, Fmoc-1-amino-cyclopropane carboxylic acid, Boc-1-amino-cyclobutane carboxylic acid, Fmoc-1-amino-cyclobutane carboxylic acid, Boc-1-amino-cyclopentane carboxylic acid, Fmoc-1-amino-cyclopentane carboxylic acid, Boc-1-amino-cyclohexane carboxylic acid, Fmoc-1-amino-cyclohexane carboxylic acid, Boc-1-amino-cycloheptane carboxylic acid, Fmoc-1-amino-cycloheptane carboxylic acid, Boc-1-amino-cyclooctane carboxylic acid, Fmoc-1-amino-cyclooctane carboxylic acid, Fmoc-8-amino-1,4-dioxa-spiro[4,5]decane-8-carboxylic acid, Fmoc-1-amino-4-oxo-cyclohexane carboxylic acid, Boc-cis-1-amino-4-phenyl-cyclohexane carboxylic acid, Fmoc-cis-1-amino-4-phenyl-cyclohexane carboxylic acid, Fmoc-4-amino-tetrahydropyran-4-carboxylic acid, Fmoc-4-amino-tetrahydrothiopyran-4-carboxylic acid, (R,S)-Boc-1-aminoindane-1-carboxylic acid, (R,S)-Fmoc-1-aminoindane-1-carboxylic acid, Boc-2-aminoindane-2-carboxylic acid, Fmoc-2-aminoindane-2-carboxylic acid, (R,S)-Boc-2-aminotetraline-2-carboxylic acid, (R,S)-Fmoc-2-aminotetraline-2-carboxylic acid, (R,S)-3-Boc-amino-9-Boc-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-carbazole-3-carboxylic acid, (R,S)-3-Fmoc-amino-9-Boc-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-carbazole-3-carboxylic acid, Boc-4-amino-1-Z-piperidine-4-carboxylic acid, Fmoc-4-amino-1-Boc-piperidine-4-carboxylic acid, and Z-4-amino-1-Boc-piperidine-4-carboxylic acid. Aliphatic α-Amino Acid Derivatives includes but is not limited to: Boc-D-allylglycine-DCHA, Fmoc-D-allylglycine, Boc-L-allylglycine.DCHA, Fmoc-L-allylglycine, Fmoc-D-propargylglycine, Fmoc-L-propargylglycine, Boc-L-alpha-t-butylglycine, Fmoc-L-alpha-t-butylglycine, Boc-D-alpha-t-amylglycine, Fmoc-D-alpha-t-amylglycine, Boc-L-alpha-t-amylglycine, Fmoc-L-alpha-t-amylglycine, (S)-Boc-1-adamantyl-glycine, (S)-Fmoc-1-adamantyl-glycine, Boc-D-cyclopropylglycine, Fmoc-D-cyclopropylglycine, Boc-L-cyclopropylglycine, Fmoc-L-cyclopropylglycine, Boc-D-cyclopentyl-glycine, Fmoc-D-cyclopentyl-glycine, Boc-L-cyclopentyl-glycine, Fmoc-L-cyclopentyl-glycine, Boc-L-beta-t-butylalanine, Fmoc-L-beta-t-butylalanine, Boc-beta-cyclopropyl-D-alanine.DCHA, Fmoc-beta-cyclopropyl-D-alanine, Boc-beta-cyclopropyl-L-alanine.DCHA, Fmoc-beta-cyclopropyl-L-alanine, Fmoc-beta-cyclobutyl-D-alanine, Fmoc-beta-cyclobutyl-L-alanine, Boc-beta-cyclohexyl-D-alanine monohydrate, Fmoc-beta-cyclohexyl-D-alanine, Boc-beta-cyclohexyl-L-alanine monohydrate, Fmoc-beta-cyclohexyl-L-alanine, Boc-D-2-aminobutyric acid.DCHA, Fmoc-D-2-aminobutyric acid, Boc-L-2-aminobutyric acid, Fmoc-L-2-aminobutyric acid, (R,S)-Boc-2-amino-4,4-difluoro-butyric acid, (R,S)-Fmoc-2-amino-4,4-difluoro-butyric acid, (R,S)-Boc-2-amino-4,4,4-trifluoro-butyric acid, (R,S)-Fmoc-2-amino-4,4,4-trifluoro-butyric acid, (S)-Boc-2-amino-4,4,4-trifluoro-butyric acid, (S)-Fmoc-2-amino-4,4,4-trifluoro-butyric acid, H-D-norvaline, Boc-D-norvaline, Fmoc-D-norvaline, H-L-norvaline, Boc-L-norvaline, Fmoc-L-norvaline, H-D-norleucine, Boc-D-norleucine, Fmoc-D-norleucine, H-L-norleucine, Boc-L-norleucine, Fmoc-L-norleucine, Boc-4,5-dehydro-D-leucine.DCHA, Fmoc-4,5-dehydro-D-leucine, Boc-4,5-dehydro-L-leucine.DCHA, Fmoc-4,5-dehydro-L-leucine, (R)-Boc-2-amino-3,3-dimethyl-pent-4-enoic acid, (R)-Fmoc-2-amino-3,3-dimethyl-pent-4-enoic acid, (S)-Boc-2-amino-3,3-dimethyl-pent-4-enoic acid, (S)-Fmoc-2-amino-3,3-dimethyl-pent-4-enoic acid, (R)-Boc-2-amino-3-ethyl-pentanoic acid, (R)-Fmoc-2-amino-3-ethyl-pentanoic acid, (S)-Boc-2-amino-3-ethyl-pentanoic acid, (S)-Fmoc-2-amino-3-ethyl-pentanoic acid, (R,S)-Boc-2-amino-tetradecanoic acid, (R,S)-Fmoc-2-amino-tetradecanoic acid, Fmoc-D-homo-Cha, Fmoc-L-homo-Cha, Fmoc-L-homoleucine, and Fmoc-D-homoleucine.

In some embodiments herein described, an α-helical peptide is provided by interposing during chemical synthesis an α,α′-dialkyl-amino acids every 3-4 residues in a linear polypeptide sequence. Peptide bond formation can be typically performed by a double coupling SPPS approach which refers to an additional peptide bond forming reaction (see Example 4).

For helix stabilization, simple N-protected α,α′-dialkyl amino acids spaced every 3-4 residues are preferred to minimize conformational interference abrogating α-helix formation; preferred side chains for α′ are expected to be: methyl, —CH₃, ethyl —CH₂CH₃ and propyl, —CH₂CH₂CH₃; isobutyric and C1-C4 branched alkyl side chains.

In some embodiments, the at least one α,α′-dialkyl-amino acids in positions of the primary structure that facilitate helix formation (see “The Structure and Action of Proteins”, R. E. Dickerson & I. Geis; W. A. Benjamin, New York; 1969; “Conformational effects of chiral alpha,alpha-dialkyl amino acids. I. C-terminal tetrapeptides of emerimicin containing alpha-ethylalanine.” (1988).

Reference is made to the schematic illustration of FIG. 1, where the amino acids residues forming a secondary alpha helix are plotted on a helical wheel, a representation that illustrates the orientations of the constituent amino acids. Helical Wheel plots a peptide sequence as a helical wheel to help recognize amphiphilic and amphiphobic regions. Helical Wheel plots a helical wheel representation of a peptide sequence. Each residue is offset from the preceding one by 100 degrees, the typical angle of rotation for an alpha-helix. Thus, projecting a peptide in α-helical form onto a plane along the helix axis allows for the circular distribution of the amino acid side chain direction away from the center. Helices observed in proteins can range from four to over forty residues long, but a typical helix contains about ten amino acids (about three turns). Thus, an alpha helix can have multiple faces of similarly grouped polar and non-polar amino acids that can be targets for non-natural amino acids. In amphipathic alpha helices, the distribution of hydrophobic residues follows the loose rule that every 3rd and/or 4th residue is hydrophobic in nature. Computer programs useful to identify and classify amphipathic a helical domains include, but not limited to HELICALWHEEL⁽⁺⁾, EMBOSS pepwheel, DrawCoil, heliQuest, and the like. Secondary-structure prediction methods useful to identify protein secondary structures, including alpha helices include but not limited to: EVA, Psipred, SAM, PORTER, PROF and SABLE (Mount DM (2004). Bioinformatics: Sequence and Genome Analysis (2ed.). Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. ISBN 0-87969-712-1. Martin K Jones, G. M. Anantharamaiah, and Jere P. Segrest; Journal of Lipid Research Volume 33, page 287-296, 1992).

In particular, referring to FIG. 1, an amphipathic alpha helix exhibits two faces or sides—one containing predominantly hydrophobic amino acids oriented toward the interior of the protein, in the hydrophobic core, and one containing predominantly polar amino acids oriented toward the solvent-exposed surface of the protein. In the secondary structure the hydrophobic amino acids and hydrophilic amino acids so positioned forms clusters on the helix as will be understood by a skilled person. Helices observed in proteins can range from four to over forty residues long, but a typical helix contains about ten amino acids (about three turns). Thus, an alpha helix has multiple faces of similarly grouped polar and non-polar amino acids that may be targets for non-natural amino acids which may provide unseen benefits in the apolipoprotein.

Referring to FIG. 1 the figure provides a schematic helical wheel representation of a 15 amino acid long alpha-helix. Projecting a peptide in alpha-helical form onto a plane along the helix axis allows for the circular distribution of the amino acid side chain direction away from the center. If the first amino acid is hydrophobic, and then amino acid at positions 4, 5, 8, 11, 12 and 15 are hydrophobic and the rest hydrophilic, the helix obtains an amphipathic character, with the upper half of the helix being hydrophobic and the lower half being hydrophilic. The distribution of hydrophobic residues is typically performed every 3rd and/or 4th residue is hydrophobic in nature. Referring to FIG. 1, at least one non-natural amino acid can have hydrophobic qualities and positioned in at least one or more positions of 1, 4, 5, 8, 9, 11, 12, and 15, and/or at least one amino acid can have hydrophilic qualities and positioned in at least one or more positions of 2, 3, 6, 7, 9, 10, 13, and 14. “Hydrophilic qualities” includes Polar/hydrophilic amino acids and their analogs of N, Q, S, T, K, R, H, D, E, and Y. Side chains which have various functional groups such as acids, amides, alcohols, and amines will impart a more polar character to the amino acid, hence encouraging water solubility. The ranking of polarity will depend on the relative ranking of polarity for various functional groups as determined in functional groups. In addition, the number of carbon-hydrogens in the alkane or aromatic portion of the side chain is considered along with the functional group. “Hydrophobic qualities” includes Non-polar/hydrophobic amino acids and their analogs G, A, V, L, I, P, Y, F, W, M, and C. “Hydrophobic qualities” includes non-polar side chains, such as but not limited to pure hydrocarbon alkyl groups (alkane branches), aromatic (benzene rings), and derivatives thereof. The number of alkyl groups also influences the polarity. The more alkyl groups present, the more non-polar the amino acid will be and hence, less soluble in water.

Referring to FIG. 1, a helical wheel representation can identify “sub-hydrophobic regions” or “sub-hydrophilic regions” which non-natural amino acids may be positioned having a desired relative hydrophobicity index. For example, amino acids number 1 (a) and number 4 (d) are within the hydrophobic face. Also, position of amino acid 1 and 4 are within a “sub-hydrophobic region” since they are positioned proximal to other hydrophobic amino acids. In contrast, amino acids position 11 is proximal to a hydrophobic amino acid 4 (d) and hydrophilic amino acid 7 (g). In one aspect, a sub-hydrophobic region includes amino acids at positions 1, 4, 5, 8, 11, and 15 and includes at least one non-natural amino acid having a relative hydrophobicity index of 100 to 64. In another aspect, the relative hydrophobicity index of that at least one non-natural amino acid(s) in the sub-hydrophobic region is higher than the amino acids within the hydrophobic not within the sub-hydrophobic region. In one aspect, a sub-hydrophilic region includes amino acids at positions 3, 6, 10, 13, and 14 having a relative hydrophobicity index of −14 to at least −55. In another aspect, the relative hydrophobicity index of that at least one non-natural amino acid in the sub-hydrophilic region is lower than at least one the amino acid(s) within the hydrophilic face not within the sub-hydrophilic region. In another aspect, an amino acid which borders a boundary between the hydrophobic and hydrophilic face (such as amino acid numbers 9 and 2) can be selected as non-natural amino acids having either hydrophilic or hydrophobic qualities, such as the relative hydrophobic index. The “hydrophobicity index” is a measure of the relative hydrophobicity, or how soluble an amino acid is in water at different pHs. For example, at pH 7, the relative hydrophobicity of Phe is 100, Ile is 99, and Glu −31, and Asp is −55. Thus, the higher the relative hydrophobicity index, the more hydrophobic the amino acids and conversely, the more negative the relative hydrophobicity index, the more hydrophilic the amino acid. At a pH of 7, very hydrophobic amino acids are in the range of 100 to 74, moderate hydrophobic amino acids are in the range 63 to 41, neutral amino acids are in the range 13 to −10, and hydrophilic amino acids are in the range of −14 to at least −55. Hydrophobicity scales, including relative hydrophobic index, can be determined through, but not limited to: Log P determination, Wimley-White whole residue hydrophobicity scales, Kyte-Doolittle Hydropathy Scale, as well as in silico computer modeling methods.

In some embodiments, at least one hydrophobic α,α′-dialkyl-amino acids can be positioned in the primary structure of the synthetic apolipoprotein possibly in combination with other hydrophobic amino acid with a periodicity i_(o)+x_(o) where i_(o) is a recurring position of an hydrophobic amino acid of plurality of hydrophobic amino acids in the primary structure and x_(o) is a number of amino acids in the helical segment between a first occurrence and a second occurrence of the recurring position i_(o) with wherein x_(o) is 3 or 4. In particular in some embodiments, the placement of hydrophobic amino acids spaced with a linear periodicity of i_(o) to i_(o)+x_(o) can create a first side of hydrophobic amino acids and a second face of amino acids which are not hydrophobic in the alpha helix secondary structure of the synthetic apolipoprotein. For example, if i is the first position in the helical segment of 49 or more base pairs, than an i_(o)+3 periodicity can identify one or more residues for incorporation of a non-natural amino acid at positions 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 28, 31, 34, 37, 40, 43, 46, and 49. In another aspect, if the periodicity is i_(o)+4 and i is the first position in the helical segment of 49 or more base pairs, than an i+4 periodicity can identify one or more residues for incorporation of a non-natural amino acid at positions: 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, 29, 33, 37, 41, 45, and 49. Note that the i+3 and the i+4 periodicities can identify placement of non-natural amino acids in any length of segment upstream or downstream the position i. In some embodiments, the hydrophobic amino acids within the helical segment can be comprised with a periodicity is not the same and therefore where x_(o) can be any integer number from 3 to 9, preferably 3 and/or 4 and possibly up to 8 or 9 at the different turns within a same helical segment.

In some embodiments, at least one hydrophilic α,α′-dialkyl-amino acids can be positioned in the primary structure of the synthetic apolipoprotein possibly in combination with other natural hydrophilic amino acids with a periodicity i_(i)+x_(i) where i_(i) is a recurring position of an hydrophilic amino acid of the plurality of hydrophilic amino acids in the primary structure and x_(i) is a number of amino acids in the helical segment between a first occurrence and a second occurrence of the recurring position i_(i) and with x_(i) being an integer from 3 to 9, preferably 3 or 4 and possibly up to 8 or 9. In embodiments wherein optimization of SPPS is desired, simple α,α′-dialkyl-amino acids are preferred, e.g., where the α′ side chain is methyl, ethyl and propyl.

In some embodiments, at least one helical segment comprises hydrophobic non-natural amino acids together with hydrophilic amino acids. In some of those embodiments the i_(i)+3 or i_(i)+4 periodicity alternates with the i_(o)+x_(o) position in the helical segment. For example, if i_(o) is position 2 from the start of the helical segment i_(i)+3 or i_(i)+4 position can be positioned at position 5 or 6 from the start of the same helical segment. The positioning of i_(i) and i₀ can cause a shift of a hydrophobic and hydrophilic sides in the secondary alpha helical structure of the segment.

In some embodiments, the α-helical segment can comprise additional substituted or unsubstituted non-natural amino acids, e.g., glycine derivatives, ring-substituted phenylalanine and tyrosine derivatives, N-methyl amino acids, e.g., N-methylvaline, 6-N-methyllysine, and the like. In certain embodiments one or more of the “natural” amino acids of the peptides described herein, can be substituted with the corresponding non-natural amino acid.

Substitution of natural and non-natural amino acids within the α-helical segment can affect the manner in which the amphipathic α-helices fold to form a bundle and three-dimensional structure of the bundle. Substitution of different amino acids within the α-helical segment can also affect the lipid binding properties. Computer programs to identify and classify amphipathic helical domains are known to those of skill in the art and many have been described by Jones et al. (1992) J. Lipid Res. 33: 287-296). Such programs include, but are not limited to the helical wheel program (WHEEL or WHEEL/SNORKEL), helical net program (HELNET, HELNET/SNORKEL, HELNET/Angle), program for addition of helical wheels (COMBO or COMBO/SNORKEL), program for addition of helical nets (COMNET, COMNET/SNORKEL, COMBO/SELECT, COMBO/NET), consensus wheel program (CONSENSUS, CONSENSUS/SNORKEL), and the like

In some embodiments, synthetic apolipoprotein herein described comprise peptide helices having a length of 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 17, 18, 21, 22, 24, 25, 28, 29 or 31 amino acid residues In some embodiments, alpha helical segments comprise helices with non-polar side-chains starting 1 to 3 position upstream from the C-terminal position coinciding with the beginning of the alpha helical secondary structure.

In some embodiments, the number of alpha-helical peptide segments that form an apolipoprotein range from three to twelve alpha-helical segments. In some embodiments, the number of alpha-helical peptide segments range from four to eight alpha-helical segments. In some embodiments, the number of α-helical peptide segments that form the apolipoprotein is at least four α-helical peptide segments. In some embodiments, each α-helical peptide segment comprises from 15 to 100 amino acids. In another embodiment, each α-helical peptide segment comprises 20 to 50 amino acids.

In embodiments herein described, synthetic apolipoproteins can comprise a plurality of amphipathic α-helical peptide segments covalently linked together using well-known and established fragment conjugation or ligation chemistries described by Dawson and Kent in their comprehensive review—“Synthesis of Native Proteins by Chemical Ligation” 2000, Ann Rev Biochem 69:923-60.

In some embodiments ligation of the helices and the linker segments can be performed—as described in “Synthesis of Native Proteins by Chemical Ligation” 2000, Ann Rev Biochem 69:923-60.

Typically, α-helical peptides are separated by a short “linker sequence” which can be provided by a sequence of natural or non-natural amino acids. The linker sequence can form an amino acid loop. However, “linker sequences” may or may not be present between adjacent alpha-helical peptides. In this embodiment, the C-terminus of a first α-helix is directly adjoined to the N-terminus of the subsequent, second alpha-helix. Linker sequences may comprise as few as one amino acid to over 30 amino acids. More preferably, the linker sequence comprises 1 to 15 amino acids, even more preferably 1 to 10 L-amino acids.

In some embodiments, inter-helical linkers can be provided by peptides of 3-6 glycine residues or other residues. The most commonly used is glycine or other amino acids, e.g. 3-amino glycine (beta glycine). In some embodiments, the linkers between helical segments can also comprise non-natural amino acids.

In some embodiments, at least one α-helical peptide segment is derived from a different apolipoprotein to form a chimeric apolipoprotein.

In embodiments herein described the helical segment of a synthetic apolipoprotein are expected to interact with the lipids to form a supersecondary unit that combines with the lipids and forms a tertiary structure that will favor formation of an NLP.

A “supersecondary unit” or “structural motif” indicates a segment of the protein that forms an identifiable three-dimensional structure formed by adjacent secondary structure elements optionally linked by unstructured protein regions. In structural motifs the secondary structures are typically comprised with a same orientation one with respect to another. In particular some structural motifs (e.g., four-helix bundle) are conserved in different proteins as will be understood by a skilled person.

The “tertiary structure” of a protein refers to the three-dimensional structure of a protein, stabilized by non-covalent interactions among non-adjacent segments of the protein and optionally by one or more additional compounds or ions interacting through covalent or non-covalent interactions with one or more segments of the proteins. Exemplary non-covalent interactions stabilizing the three dimensional structure of the proteins comprise non-specific hydrophobic interactions, burial of hydrophobic residues from water, specific tertiary interactions, such as salt bridges, hydrogen bonds, the tight packing of side chains, chelation and disulfide bonds and additional interactions identifiable by a skilled person. Exemplary covalent interactions among compounds or ions and segments of the protein comprise N-linked glycosylation, cytochrome C haem attachment and additional interaction identifiable by a skilled person. In some instances, multiple proteins can form a protein complex, also called a multimer, with one or more identifiable three dimensional structures stabilized by non-transitory interactions between the multiple proteins. The three-dimensional structure of the protein complex is also called “quaternary structure” of the complex. Accordingly, the quaternary structure can be stabilized by some of the same types of non-covalent and covalent interactions as the tertiary structure as will be understood by a skilled person. Multimers made up of identical subunits are referred to with a prefix of “homo-” (e.g. a homotetramer) and those made up of different subunits are referred to with a prefix of “hetero-”, for example, a heterotetramer, such as the two alpha and two beta chains of hemoglobin. “Non-transitory interactions” as used herein indicates interactions between proteins or related segments that are detectable by laboratory techniques such as immunoprecipitation, crosslinking and Forster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) measurements, crystallography, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and additional techniques identifiable by a skilled person.

Some embodiments herein described, involve interaction of apolipoproteins and phospholipids results in formation of lipoprotein particles with nanometer-sized particles, referred as nanolipoprotein particles or NLPs. The term “nanolipoprotein particle” ‘nanodisc” “rHDL” or “NLP” as used herein indicates a supramolecular complex formed by a membrane forming lipid and a scaffold protein, that following assembly in presence of a target protein also include the target protein. The scaffold protein and target protein constitute protein components of the NLP. The membrane forming lipid constitutes a lipid component of the NLP. The term “membrane forming lipid” or “amphipathic lipid” as used herein indicates a lipid possessing both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties that in an aqueous environment assemble in a lipid bilayer structure that consists of two opposing layers of amphipathic molecules know as polar lipids. Each polar lipid has a hydrophilic moiety, i.e. a polar group such as, a derivatized phosphate or a saccharide group, and a hydrophobic moiety, i.e., a long hydrocarbon chain. Exemplary polar lipids include phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids, ether lipids, sterols, alkylphosphocholines and the like. Amphipathic lipids include but are not limited to membrane lipids, i.e. amphipathic lipids that are constituents of a biological membrane, such as phospholipids like dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) or dioleoylphosphoethanolamine (DOPE) or dioleoylphosphatidylcholine (DOPC), or dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC). In a preferred embodiment, the lipid is dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC).

The term “scaffold protein” as used herein indicates any amphipathic protein that is capable of self-assembly with an amphipathic lipid in an aqueous environment, organizing the amphipathic lipid into a bilayer, and include but are not limited to apolipoproteins, lipophorins, derivatives thereof (such as truncated and tandemly arrayed sequences) and fragments thereof (e.g. peptides), such as apolipoprotein E4, 22K fragment, lipophorin III, apolipoprotein A-1 and the like. In particular, in some embodiments rationally designed amphipathic peptides and synthetic apolipoproteins can serve as a scaffold protein of the NLP.

Predominately discoidal in shape, nanolipoprotein particles typically have diameters between 10 to 20 nm, share uniform heights between 4.5 to 5 nm and can be produced in yields ranging between 30 to 90%. The particular lipoprotein, the lipid to lipoprotein ratio, and the assembly parameters determine the size and homogeneity of nanolipoprotein particles.

In some embodiments herein described the scaffold protein is provided by total chemical synthesis yielding a synthetic apolipoprotein, the latter is capable encircling a nanometer scale lipid bilayer creating a nanolipoprotein particle (NLP). In some embodiments, the synthetic apolipoprotein can be customized by varying the length of the amphipathic helical part of the protein. Each apolipoprotein used for membrane sequestering can have an optimized protein to lipid ratio in order to ensure self-assembly of the nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs).

In some embodiments, the length of the synthetic apolipoprotein herein described is selected to customize the average size of the particles from 5 to 70 nm (+/−20%) and a height from 3 to 15 nm (+/−20%). In a preferred embodiment, the size of the NLP particles range from 5 to 10 nm (+/−3%) and a height in the range of 4.5 to 6 nm (+/−3%). (Peters-Libeu, C. A., Newhouse, Y., Hatters, D. M., and Weisgraber, K. H. (2006) Model of biologically active apolipoprotein E bound to dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine J Biol Chem 281, 1073-9. 29. Whorton, M. R., Bokoch, M. P., Rasmussen, S. G., Huang, B., Zare, R. N., Kobilka, B., and Sunahara, R. K. (2007); A monomeric G protein-coupled receptor isolated in a high-density lipoprotein particle efficiently activates its G protein Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104, 7682-7. Tufteland, M., Pesavento, J. B., Bermingham, R. L., Hoeprich, P. D., Jr., and Ryan, R. O. (2007); Peptide stabilized amphotericin B nanodisks Pepides 28, 741-6. Cruz, F., and Edmondson, D. E. (2007) Kinetic properties of recombinant MAO-A on incorporation into phospholipid nanodisks J Neural Transm 114, 699-702.

In some embodiments, the number of α-helices in a synthetic apolipoprotein forming a scaffold protein around the lipids can be in the range of 1 to 10. In another aspect, the total number of a helices forming a belt around the lipids is in the rage of 3 to 10. In some embodiments, the number of α-helices in the synthetic apolipoprotein can be in the range of 4 to 10. In general, increasing the total number of helices can increase the discoidal size of particle through having a larger circumference.

In particular, in some embodiments the NLP components can be contacted to form an admixture that is then preferably subjected to a temperature transition cycle in presence of a detergent. In the temperature cycle, the temperature of the admixture is raised above and below the gel crystalline transition temperature of the membrane forming lipids. Exemplary procedures are illustrated in Example 5 of the present application. A further description of this method can also be found in the U.S. patent application entitled “Nanolipoprotein Particles and Related Methods and Systems for Protein Capture Solubilization and/or Purification” Ser. No. 12/352,548 filed on Jan. 12, 2009 and incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

In some embodiments, the nanolipoprotein particles formed with the synthetic apolipoprotein herein described can further comprise one or more membrane proteins. The term “membrane protein” as used herein indicates any protein having a structure that is suitable for attachment to or association with a biological membrane or biomembrane (i.e. an enclosing or separating amphipathic layer that acts as a barrier within or around a cell). In particular, membrane proteins include proteins that contain large regions or structural domains that are hydrophobic (the regions that are embedded in or bound to the membrane); those proteins can be difficult to work with in aqueous systems, since when removed from their normal lipid bilayer environment those proteins tend to aggregate and become insoluble.

Exemplary methods to provide nanolipoprotein particles which are expected to be applicable to provide one or more NLPs presenting one or membrane proteins, comprise the methods described in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2009/0192299 related to methods and systems for assembling, solubilizing and/or purifying a membrane associated protein in a nanolipoprotein particle, which comprise a temperature transition cycle performed in presence of a detergent, wherein during the temperature transition cycle the nanolipoprotein components are brought to a temperature above and below the gel to liquid crystallization transition temperature of the membrane forming lipid of the nanolipoprotein particle. In some embodiments, verification of inclusion of amembrane proteins can be performed using the methods and systems for monitoring production of a target protein in a nanolipoprotein particle described in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2009/0136937 filed on May 9, 2008 with Ser. No. 12/118,530 which is incorporated by reference in its entirety.

An example of a detergent commonly used to prepared apolipoprotein-lipid complexes is sodium cholate. Preferred lipids are phospholipids, most preferably including at least one phospholipid, typically soy phosphatidylcholine, egg phosphatidylcholine, soy phosphatidylglycerol, egg phosphatidylglycerol, palmitoyl-oleoyl-phosphatidylcholine distearoylphosphatidylcholine, or distearoylphosphatidylglycerol. Other useful phospholipids include, e.g., phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylglycerol, sphingomyelin, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidic acid, phosphatidylethanol amine, lysolecithin, lysophosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinositol, cephalin, cardiolipin, cerebrosides, dicetylphosphate, dioleoylphosphatidylcholine, dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol, dioleoylphosphatidylglycerol, stearoyl-palmitoyl-phosphatidylcholine, di-palmitoyl-phosphatidylethanolamine, distearoyl-phosphatidylethanolamine, di-myrstoyl-phosphatidylserine, and dioleyl-phosphatidylcholine. Non-phosphorus containing lipids may also be used, including stearylamine, docecylamine, acetyl palmitate, and fatty acid amides. Additional lipids suitable for use are well known to persons of skill in the art and are cited in a variety of well-known sources, e.g., McCutcheon's Detergents and Emulsifiers and McCutcheon's Functional Materials, Allured Publishing Co., Ridgewood, N.J., both of which are incorporated herein by reference.

In some embodiments, the methods and systems herein described are performed at predefined lipid protein ratio, assembly conditions and/or with the use of preselected protein component and amphipathic lipid so to increase the yield, control the size of the resulting NLP and/or provide an NLP of pre-determined dimensions so to include a predetermined target protein. In one aspect, the molar ratio of lipid to apolipoprotein is 6:1. 5:1, 4:1. 3:1, 2:1. 1:1, 1:6, 1:5, 1:4, 1:3, and 1:2. However, the lipid to protein ratio can be determined on a case by case basis in view of the experimental design.

In another embodiment, the phospholipid can be functionalized or replaced. The use of functionalized phospholipids enables attachment various peptides or other biologics to the surfaces of the lipid of the NPL that allows some desired target features to be obtained, such as stability, affinity for a target molecule, and the like. A “functional group” is a group of atoms of a particular arrangement that gives the entire molecule certain characteristics. Non-limiting examples of functional groups include: chelated Ni atoms, azide, anhydride, halogens, carboxy, amino, hydroxyl, and phosphate groups, and the like. Each functional group has an electronic effect, a solubility effect, and a steric effect that needs to be considered when evaluating the overall effect on the apolipoprotein and NLP formation. First of all, the addition of a single functional group to a lipid will affect the overall electronics, solubility, and steric dimensions of that molecule. The electronic effect of a functional group is measured by its ability to either donate its electrons to adjacent atoms or functional groups or to pull or withdraw electrons away from adjacent atoms or functional groups. There are two main components that comprise the overall electronic effect of a functional group, its ability to participate in resonance and its intrinsic inductive effects. The two major properties that contribute to the water solubility of a functional group are its ability to ionize and/or its ability to form hydrogen bonds. Acidic and basic functional groups are capable of ionization and can become negatively or positively charged, respectively. Functional groups that enhance the lipid solubility are referred to as hydrophobic or lipophilic functional groups. Functional groups that lack the ability to either ionize or form hydrogen bonds tend to impart a measure of lipid solubility to a drug molecule. The functional group can be attached to the lipid polar head through covalent or ionic bonds and “weak bonds” such as dipole-dipole interactions, the London dispersion force and hydrogen bonding, preferably covalent. Moreover, functionalization of the lipid may involve hydrophobic quantum dots embedded into the lipid bilayer. The following article is incorporated by reference in its entirety: R. A. Sperling, and W. J. Parak. “Surface modification, functionalization and bioconjugation of colloidal inorganic nanoparticles”. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 28 Mar. 2010 vol. 368 no. 1915 1333-1383.

Taken together, the production of the synthetic apolipoprotein constructs herein described that comprise at least one hydrophobic α,α′-dialkyl-amino acids allows assembly of various types of NLPs as will be understood by a skilled person.

In some embodiments, the synthetic apolipoproteins, synthetic amino acid or NLPs herein described can be provided as a part of systems in accordance to various embodiments herein described.

In some embodiments, the systems herein described can be provided in the form of kits of parts. In a kit of parts, synthetic apolipoproteins, synthetic aminoacid or NLPs can be provided in various combinations one with another and with, one or more membrane forming lipids, one or more membrane protein, and/or scaffold proteins or fragments thereof. In the kits of parts the components can be comprised in the kit independently possibly included in a composition together with suitable vehicle carrier or auxiliary agents.

Additional components can also be included and comprise microfluidic chip, reference standards, and additional components identifiable by a skilled person upon reading of the present disclosure.

In the kit of parts herein disclosed, the components of the kit can be provided, with suitable instructions and other necessary reagents, in order to perform the methods here disclosed. In some embodiments, the kit can contain the compositions in separate containers. Instructions, for example written or audio instructions, on paper or electronic support such as tapes or CD-ROMs, for carrying out the assay, can also be included in the kit. The kit can also contain, depending on the particular method used, other packaged reagents and materials (i.e. wash buffers and the like).

Nanolipoprotein particles formed with synthetic NLPs herein described and related methods and systems herein described can be used in connection with various applications wherein control of the NLP size is desired, for example to accommodate and facilitate isolation of functional biosynthetic enzyme complexes ranging from biopolymer synthesis [e.g., polysaccharides (cellulose), polyesters, polyamides, polyisoprenes and additional enzymes identifiable by a skilled person] to photon capture [PS II]. such as the embodiments described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,303,273, the content of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety.

Further details concerning the identification of the suitable carrier agent or auxiliary agent of the compositions, and generally manufacturing and packaging of the kit, can be identified by the person skilled in the art upon reading of the present disclosure.

EXAMPLES

The following examples illustrate various embodiments. Those skilled in the art will recognize many variations that are within the spirit of the various embodiments and scope of the claims. The methods and system herein disclosed are further illustrated in the following examples, which are provided by way of illustration and are not intended to be limiting.

Example 1: Exemplary Synthetic Apolinoprotein Structure and Configuration

Exemplary synthetic apolipoprotein herein described herein have can have a typical structure formed by helical segments linked together by linkers schematically shown in the illustration of FIGS. 2 and 3 which provides a representation of the exemplary apolipoprotein E4, 22K fragment.

In particular, the illustration of FIG. 2 shows helical segments of Apolipoprotein E4, 22K fragment structure. As shown in FIG. 2, there are four helices, which can have varying length and chemical characteristics.

The sequences of each of the helical fragments of naturally occurring apolipoprotein E4, 22K fragment are shown in the illustration of FIG. 3 and also reported in Table IA below.

TABLE 1A SEQ ID Apolipoproteins Residue Amino acid sequence NO Apolipoprotein E4,  24-52 QRWELALGRFWDYLRWVQTLSEQVQEEL 1 Helix 1 L Apolipoprotein E4,  54-82 SQVMELRALAIDETMKELKAYKSELEEQ 2 Helix 2 L Apolipoprotein E4,  86-126 AEETRARLSKELQAAQARLGADMEDVRG 3 Helix 3 RLVQYRGEVQAMLG Apolipoprotein E4, 129-165 STEELRVRLASHLRKLRKRLLRDADDLQKRL 4 Helix 4 AVYQAG

In synthetic apolipoprotein herein described, one or more of the amino acids of at least one segment can be replaced by an α,α′-dialkyl amino acids. Table 1B shows an exemplary modification of the apolipoprotein E4 helices that is modified to include α,α′-dialkyl amino acids and is expected to have an increased stability and/or amphipathicity with respect to the apolipoprotein E4.

TABLE 1B SEQ ID Apolipoproteins Residue Amino acid sequence NO Modified  24-52 QRWELAibGRFWAibYLRWAibQTL 5 Apolipoprotein E4, SAibQVQAibELL Helix 1 synthetic Modified  54-82 SQAibTQELRAibLMDEAibMKELKAi 6 Apolipoprotein E4, bYKSEAibEEQL Helix 2 Modified  86-126 ALETRAibRLSKELQAibAQARLGAib 7 Apolipoprotein E4, DMEDAibRGRLVQYRAibEVQAMLG Helix 3 Modified 129-165 STEEAibRVRLAibSHLRKLRKRLLRDAib 8 Apolipoprotein E4, DDLQKRLAibVYQAG Helix 4

Example 2: Exemplary Synthetic Apolipoprotein—Designed Sequence

A sequence of an apolipoprotein can be designed to in view of the desired interactions between the α-helices and the lipids of the nanolipoprotein particles and the structure of the α-helices that is desired

Predicting α-helical structures can be made through a helical wheel visual representation. A helical wheel is a type of plot or visual representation used to illustrate the properties of alpha helices in proteins. The sequence of amino acids that make up a helical region of the protein's secondary structure are plotted in a rotating manner where the angle of rotation between consecutive amino acids is 100°, so that the final representation looks down the helical axis. The plot reveals whether hydrophobic amino acids are concentrated on one side of the helix, usually with polar or hydrophilic amino acids on the other.

Referring to FIGS. 5-8, helical wheel representations are shown for Helixes 1-4 for the apolipoprotein E4 fragment.

Example 3: Synthetic Apolipoprotein and Related Designed Sequence

An additional example of synthetic apolipoprotein is shown in Table 2 wherein the C-terminal portion of a lipophorin protein from B. mori. The proteins form NLPs readily and in high yield, the projected helical region at the C-terminus is expected to be modifiable to include helix forming Aib residues as indicated; the periodicity is every 6-9 residues.

TABLE 2 Gterminal region of lipophorin protein-B. mori SEQ ID NO Naturally KVSSNVQETNEKLAPKIKAAYDDFAKNTQE  9 occurring VIKKIQEAANAKQ Synthetic KVSSNVQETNAibKLAPKKIKAAibYDDFAK 10 NTQAibVIKKIQEAibANAKQ

Example 4: Chemical Synthesis of a Synthetic Apolipoprotein

It is possible to synthesize each helical segment using SPPS and then ligate them together to create an entire 4-helix bundle protein. Ligation chemistry will be that described by Dawson and Kent “Synthesis of Native Proteins by Chemical Ligation” 2000, Ann Rev Biochem 69:923-60, and outlined below with reference to FIG. 4.

In particular, each helical segment will be synthesized using automated Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis (SPPS), ABI 433A peptide synthesizer. Appropriate starting resins will be purchased and Fmoc-protected amino acids will be added sequentially in an automated manner in accordance with the sequence specified in the target peptide. Amide bond formation is accomplished using uronium-based coupling chemistry as implemented by ABI instrumentation.

This coupling chemistry can be applied to appropriately protect non-natural amino acids, e.g. amino isobutryic acid (AIB) for helix enhancement and stabilization. Additionally, modified amino acids containing fluorophores or ¹⁴C labels can be included in an overall peptide synthesis regimen. Ligation of helical segments involves the native chemical ligation method as described by Dawson and Kent B “Synthesis of Native Proteins by Chemical Ligation” 2000, Ann Rev Biochem 69:923-60.

In particular, referring to FIG. 4, C-terminal thioester reacts with an N-terminal cysteine thiol group to form a transient thioester, the latter immediately collapses to regenerate cys-thiol and an amide bond joining two polypeptides.

In particular SPPS can be carried out with fresh coupling reagents e.g. 1-[Bis(dimethylamino)methylene]-1H-1,2,3-triazolo[4,5-b]pyridinium 3-oxid hexafluorophosphate, N-[(Dimethylamino)-1H-1,2,3-triazolo-[4,5-b]pyridin-1-ylmethylene]-N-methylmethanaminium hexafluorophosphate N-oxide (HATU) and hydroxybenzotriazole (HOBT) and protected amino acid. Reaction time for each HATU/HOBT coupling is extended to a few hours and repeated 1× or 2× with fresh reagent(s) vs. the normal 20-30 minute coupling time

Example 5: Nanolipoprotein Particles

Exemplary nanolipoprotein particles including a synthetic apolipoprotein herein described can be made from purified, naturally occurring and/or recombinant apolipoproteins and lipids. A schematic illustration of the nanolipoprotein particle or NLP showing helical strands of apolipoprotein surrounding a population of phospholipids is shown in FIG. 9.

Exemplary procedures that are expected to be applicable to NLPs comprising a synthetic apolipoprotein herein described and in particular to the synthetic apolipoprotein of Examples 1 to 3.

Apolipoproteins and amphipathic lipids when mixed in aqueous solutions spontaneously assemble into nano-sized discoidal particles ranging in diameter from 8 to 50 nm. When the assembly process occurs in the presence of a detergent solubilized membrane protein (MP), the latter is incorporated into the NLP and retains its biological function.

When the NLP assembly process occurs in the presence of a small molecule therapeutic agent like a lipophilic drug molecule, e.g. amphotericin B, with the drug preferentially contained within the NLP. Other targets can be included as well as would be understood by a skilled person.

Typically, 1 ug apolipoprotein with 4 ug lipid in 300-500 ul in TBS, pH=7.4, 20 mM cholate, dialyze preparation overnight can spontaneously form NLPs. Cholate is dialyzed away. In the presence of tetraether lipids, a TBS buffer is preferred.

Reaction of each protein with DMPC yields NLPs with unique overall structural/shape characteristics. In general, particles produced are expected to be found to be discoidal in shape with diameters ranging from 10 to 20 nm dependent on the apolipoprotein or derivative used in assembly; a height of ˜5 nm can be determined for all NLP preparations, consistent with a membrane bilayer formed by DMPC. The apolipoprotein is the primary determinant of NLP size. Moreover, measured sizes and shapes did not differ appreciably when formed in the presence of cholate and when using fluorophore labeled reactants.

Lipid Preparation—

Small unilamellar vesicles of DMPC (liposomes) can be prepared by probe sonicating a 68 mg/mL aqueous solution of DMPC until optical clarity is achieved; typically 15 min on ice is sufficient. A 2 min. centrifugation step at 13700 RCF can be used to remove any metal contamination from the probe tip.

Conventional Assembly of “Empty”—NLPs and Integral Membrane Protein-NLPs—

For “empty”-NLPs ApoE4 can be combined with DMPC liposomes in a ratio of 1:4 by mass in TBS buffer. The mixture can be then incubated at room temp. for 2 hours. The NLPs can be then purified by size exclusion chromatography.

Assembly of integral membrane protein, for example, bR-NLPs: apoE4 can be mixed with DMPC in a ratio of 1:4 by mass in TBS buffer. Sodium cholate solution can be then added to a final concentration of 20 mM. Purple membrane bacteriorhodopsin can be then added in a 0.67 mass ratio to the ApoE4 apolipoprotein. Incubation is expected to proceed as described above, followed by dialysis in TBS for detergent removal. The NLPs can be then purified by size exclusion chromatography.

Nanolipoprotein Particle (NLP) Formation and Purification—

Nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs) form in a self-assembling process in the correct mass ratio of apolipoprotein to lipid. This ratio can be be optimized for each different apolipoprotein. The ratio described below is for ApoE422k. Other ratios can be found in the literature (17, 24, 25). Start water bath incubators. Temperatures at 30° C. and 20° C. Probe sonicate 34 mg of DMPC into 1 mL of TBS at 6 amps for approximately 15 minutes or until optical clarity is achieved. Centrifuge DMPC solution at 13700 RCF for 2.5 min to remove residual metal from probe sonicator. Transfer supernatant into new tube. Combine Apo E422K with DMPC in a ratio of 1:4 by mass in TBS buffer in a 1.5 mL Eppendorf tube. Typically batches are of the 250 μL size. Transition temperature procedure: Immerse tube in water bath for 10 minutes each 30° C. (above DMPC transition temp.) followed by 20° C. (below DMPC transition temp.). Repeat the procedure three times then incubate at 23.8° C. overnight. Filter preparation through a 0.45 μm spin filter at 13700 RCF for 1 min. Purify NLPs using size exclusion chromatography. Use a Shimadzu SCL-10A FPLC, equipped with a Superdex 200 10/300 GL column with TBS buffer, a 200 μL sample injection volume, and a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min. Collect 0.5 mL fractions. Concentrate fractions using a Vivaspin 2 ultrafiltration device with a 50 k MWCO. The following articles are incorporated by reference in their entireties: Chromy, B. A., et al. (2007) Different Apolipoproteins Impact Nanolipoprotein Particle Formation J. Am Chem Soc; Bayburt, T. H., Carlson, J. W., and Sligar, S. G. (1998) Reconstitution and imaging of a membrane protein in a nanometer-size phospholipid bilayer J Struct Biol 123, 37-44; Gursky, O., Ranjana, and Gantz, D. L. (2002) Complex of human apolipoprotein C-1 with phospholipid: thermodynamic or kinetic stability? Biochemistry 41, 7373-84. Jayaraman, S., Gantz, D., and Gursky, O. (2005) Structural basis for thermal stability of human low-density lipoprotein Biochemistry 44, 3965-71. DMPC: 1,2-Dimyristoyl-sn-Glycero-3-Phosphocholine (Avanti Polar Lipids). Purified apolipoprotein protein or truncation (ApoE422k). TBS Buffer: 10 mM Tris-HCl; 0.15 M NaCl; 0.25 mM EDTA; 0.005% NaN₃ (sodium azide); adjust to pH 7.4. 30° C. and 20° C. water baths. Probe or bath sonicator. Spin filter, 0.45 μm Concentrator 50 kD MWCO, Vivaspin 2 (Sartorius Inc.). FPLC Instrument (Shimadzu SCL-10A), size exclusion column (Superdex 200 10/300 GL (GE Healthcare Life Sciences).

Membrane Protein Incorporation into Nanolipoprotein Particles (NLPs)

Start water bath incubators. Temperatures at 30° C. and 20° C. Probe sonicate 34 mg of DMPC into 1 mL of TBS at 6 amps for approximately 15 minutes or until optical clarity is achieved. Alternatively, sonicate in bath sonicator to optical clarity. Centrifuge the solution at 13K for 2 minutes to remove residual metal sloughed off from probe sonicator. For a 250 μL batch in a 1.5 mL Eppendorf tube. Combine Apo E422K with DMPC in a ratio of 1:4 by mass in TBS buffer. Sodium cholate solution is then added to a final concentration of 20 mM. Biotinylated bacteriorhodopsin (bR) membrane protein is added in a 0.67 mass ratio to the Apo E422k apolipoprotein. Transition temperature procedure: Immerse tube in water bath for 10 minutes each 30° C. (above DMPC transition temp.) followed by 20° C. (below DMPC transition temp.). Repeat the procedure three times then incubate at 23.8° C. overnight. To remove the cholate detergent and allow for self-assembly of MP-NLPs (bR-NLPs) the sample is loaded into a pre-soaked D-Tube Dialyzers, mini (Novagen). The sample is then dialyzed against 3 changes each of 1 L TBS buffer over a 2-3 day period at room temperature. Concentrate using an ultrafiltration device, Vivaspin 2 (Sartorius) MWCO 50K to 200 μL. Transfer supernatant into new tube Size exclusion chromatography is performed using a Shimadzu SCL-10A FPLC, equipped with a Superdex 200 10/300 GL column (GE Healthcare Life Sciences). The buffer is TBS with a 200 μL sample injection volume, a 0.5 mL/min flow rate and 0.5 mL-1.0 mL fraction size. Concentrate the fractions of interest using an ultrafiltration device, Vivaspin 2 (Sartorius) MWCO 50K for NLP peaks.

DMPC [1,2-Dimyristoyl-sn-Glycero-3-Phosphocholine] (Avanti Polar Lipids). Purified apolipoprotein or truncation (ApoE4 22 kD). TBS Buffer: 10 mM Tris-HCl; 0.15 M NaCl; 0.25 mM EDTA; 0.005% NaN₃ (sodium azide); adjust to pH 7.4. Sodium Cholate (Sigma) 500 mM solution in TBS. Biotinylated Bacteriorhodopsin (bR) (Sigma). 30° C. and 20° C. and 23.8° C. water baths. Probe Sonicator. Dialysis cups 10,000 MWCO (Pierce) or D-Tube Dialyzers, mini (Novagen). Spin filter, 0.45 μm. FPLC Instrument (Shimadzu SCL-10A), size exclusion column (Superdex 200 10/300 GL (GE Healthcare Life Sciences). Concentrator 50 kD MWCO, Vivaspin 2 (Sartorius Inc.)

Size Exclusion Chromatography—

The NLPs made with and without incorporated membrane protein can be purified from ‘free protein’ and ‘free lipid’ by HPLC (Shimadzu) using a Superdex 200 10/300 GL column (GE Healthcare), with TBS at a flow rate of 0.5 ml/min. The column can be calibrated with four protein standards HMW Gel filtration calibration kit (GE Healthcare), of known molecular weight and Stokes diameter that span the separation range of the column and the NLP samples. The void volume can be established with blue dextran. The NLP fraction can be concentrated about 10-fold to approximately 1.0 mg/ml using molecular weight sieve filters (Vivascience) having molecular weight cutoffs of 50 kDa. Protein concentration can be determined using the ADV01 protein concentration kit (Cytoskeleton), which is based on Coomassie dye binding.

SDS Page—

A 1 μL aliquot of the total (T) cell-free reaction, soluble (S) fraction and resuspended pellet (P) can be diluted with 1×SDS Sample buffer with reducing agents (Invitrogen), heat denatured and loaded on to a 4-12% gradient pre-made Bis-Tris gel (Invitrogen) along with the molecular weight standard SeeBlue plus2 (Invitrogen). The running buffer can be 1λ MES-SDS (Invitrogen). Samples can be electrophoresed for 38 minutes at 200V. Gels can be stained with Coomassie brilliant blue.

Native PAGE—

Equal amounts of NLP samples (0.5-1.0 μg) can be diluted with 2× native gel sample buffer (Invitrogen) and loaded onto 4-20% gradient pre-made Tris—glycine gels (Invitrogen). Samples can be electrophoresed for 2 hrs. at a constant 125 V. After electrophoresis, gels can be incubated with SYPRO Ruby protein gel stain (Bio-Rad) for 2 hours and then de-stained using 10% MeOH, 7% Acetic acid. Following a brief wash with ddH₂O, gels can be imaged using the green laser (532 nm) of a Typhoon 9410 (GE Healthcare) with a 610 nm bandpass 30 filter. Molecular weights can be determined by comparing migration vs. log molecular weight of standard proteins found in the NativeMark standard (Invitrogen).

AFM—

NLPs can be imaged using and Asylum MFP-3D-CF atomic force microscope. Images can be captured in tapping mode with minimal contact force and scan rates of 1 Hz. Asylum software can be used for cross-sectional analysis to measure NLP height and diameter.

The following article is incorporated by reference in its entirety: Bayburt, T. H., Carlson, J. W., and Sligar, S. G. (1998) Reconstitution and imaging of a membrane protein in a nanometer-size phospholipid bilayer. J Struct Biol 123.

Labeling the NLPs with Alexa Fluor Dyes

NLPs can be labeled with either AF647 (stability experiments) or AF750 (bio distribution experiments) by incubating the NLPs with the respective reactive dye for at least 2 hrs (5:1 dye:NLP molar ratio). The reaction can be performed in PBS buffer containing 5 mM sodium bicarbonate, pH 8.2. After completion of the reaction, 10 mM Tris pH 8.0 can be added to quench any unreacted dye and incubated for 30 minutes. The samples can be then run on SEC (Superdex 200 PC 3.2/30 column, GE Healthcare, Piscataway, N.J.) to purify out the labeled NLP from unreacted dye (0.15 mL/min flow rate). The SEC fractions corresponding to the NLP can be then pooled and concentrated using 50 kDa MWCO spin concentrators. The apoE422k concentration can be determined using the Advanced Protein Assay Reagent (Cytoskeleton Inc., Denver, Colo.), where BSA can be used as the standard. The concentrated NLP samples can be then stored at 4° C. until further use. The following article, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety: Fischer N O, et al. (2014) Evaluation of Nanolipoprotein Particles (NLPs) as an In Vivo Delivery Platform. PLoS ONE 9(3): e93342.

Analysis of Conjugation of Biological Molecules to the NLP

Due to the significant size difference between the NLPs and free protein, SEC can be used as a quantitative tool to assess conjugation of biological molecules to the NLP. NLP samples can be analyzed by SEC (Superdex 200 PC 3.2/30 column, GE Healthcare) in PBS buffer. A flow rate of 0.15 ml/min can be used to ensure no overlap in the elution of unbound protein and NLP. The samples can be monitored and detected at an absorbance wavelength of 280 nm. For the protein conjugation experiments, purified NLP fractions can be analyzed by SDS-PAGE, using SYPRO Ruby protein gel stain for visualization. Densitometry can be used to quantify conjugated protein, using appropriate 0841 and apoE422k protein standards. Previously, computational modeling of apoE422k containing NLPs indicated that NLPs that can be 23.5 nm in diameter have 6 apoE422k per NLP. Therefore, in these experiments, the NLP concentration can be calculated based on the apoE422k concentration by assuming that each NLP contained 6 apoE422k scaffold proteins.

NLP Cross-Linking

For cross-linking experiments, NLP populations isolated by SEC can be incubated with Bis-N-succinimidyl-(pentaethylene glycol) ester (henceforth abbreviated as PEO₅). NLPs (ca. 25 ng apoLp-III per μL) in HEPES buffer (10 mM HEPES, 75 mM NaCl, pH 7.4) can be incubated with 0, 0.5 and 5 mM PEO₅ for four hours at room temperature. Reactions can be quenched with 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.4) for 30 minutes at room temperature. Samples can be analyzed by NDGGE (4-20% Tris-glycine) and SDS PAGE (4-12% Bis-Tris with MES running buffer or 3-8% Tris-acetate with tricine running buffer). For denaturing gels, the Mark 12 protein standard can be used (Invitrogen).

Validating Protein Association Native Gel Electrophoresis:

Validating NLP formation by native gel electrophoresis and confirmation of membrane protein association and functionality with NLPs by protein microarray and UV-visible spectroscopy. Native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis is used to validate the association of proteins of interest (apolipoprotein and/or membrane protein) with NLP fractions eluted from the size exclusion column protein identification is confirmed with mass spectrometry. We use contact microarray spotting technology to attach NLPs to an amino-silane coated glass slide in an array format for streptavidin binding studies. Biotinylated bacteriorhodopsin (bR) is used to validate the incorporation of bR into nanolipoprotein particle fractions eluted from size exclusion chromatography. Cyanine-5-Strepavidin is used for fluorescence detection of biotinylated bacteriorhodopsin. UV-visible spectroscopy of light and dark adapted bacteriorhodopsin can be used to determine the functionality of the protein and relates information regarding the conformation of the protein.

In-depth physical characterization of these particles is used to demonstrate functional protein insertion/association. Combined with the biochemical evidence methods such as Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and Electron microscopy (EM) addresses whether the end product of self-assembly/association can be successful by determining physical parameters to identify insertion and localization of membrane proteins. Atomic force microscopy (AFM), and Electron microscopy although not fully described here, but are used to image the prepared discs and determine diameter and height measurements as well as sample heterogeneity.

Native Gel Electrophoresis

Native-PAGE gels, 4-20% Tris-glycine with 0.75 μg total loaded protein estimated by A₂₈₀ absorbance. Load 10 μL of molecular weight standards, Native mark (Invitrogen) diluted 20× in native sample buffer. The gel is run at 125V for approximately 2 hours. Stain gels with ˜150 mL of SyproRuby protein stain (Bio-Rad) following the microwave staining method: 30 sec. microwave, 30 sec. mixing on shaker table, 30 sec microwave, 5 min. shake, 30 sec. microwave, finally 23 min. on shaker table at room temperature. Destain gels for 1.5 hours on a shaker table at room temperature. Image the gel using a Typhoon Imager with appropriate filters selected for the SyproRuby fluorescence.

Traditionally, size exclusion chromatography (SEC) (15, 16), non-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (GGE) (6, 21), small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) (22, 23) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) (8, 9, 13) have been used to characterize particle size. Because SEC, GGE and SAXS all determine particle size derived from averages of ensembles of particles, none can provide biophysical data capturing subtle differences in particle size from multiple heterogeneous populations. Single particle sizing techniques, such as transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and ion mobility spectroscopy (IMS) enable quantification of the size of individual NLPs allowing the population size distribution to be examined. Such information has the potential to provide insights into the relationship between NLP size and structural composition and may prove valuable for biotechnology applications of NLPs as model membrane systems for membrane protein solubilization. For example, understanding the size distribution of different NLP assemblies may be essential for accommodating different sized membrane proteins. Materials: Phospholipids 1,2-Dimyristoyl-sn-Glycero-3-Phosphocholine (DMPC) and 1,2-Dioleoyl-sn-Glycero-3-Phosphocholine (DOPC) can be purchased from Avanti Polar.

Lipids, Inc. (Alabaster, Ala.). Full-length apoA-I, Nanodisc™ particles can be purchased from Nanodisc, Inc., (Urbana, Ill.); apoE422k protein, can be prepared “in-house”, has a 6His-tag to facilitate purification. Dried DMPC can be dissolved in 10 mM Tris pH 7.4, 0.15 M sodium chloride, 0.25 mM EDTA, 0.005% sodium azide (TBS) buffer at a concentration of 20 mg/ml followed by probe sonication to clarity. This resulting liposome suspension can be spun at 13000 g for 2.5 minutes to remove any residual titanium from the probe sonicator and un-solubilized lipid. ApoE422k (200-250 μg) can be added to the TBS/DMPC solution at a mass ratio of 4:1. The particle formation process can be started with 3 repeated sets of transition temperature incubations, above (10 minutes at 30° C.) and below the transition temperature of DMPC (23.8° C.) followed by incubation at 23.8° C. overnight. The NLPs can be purified by size-exclusion chromatography using a Superdex 200 HR 10/300 column (GE Healthcare), in TBS at a flow rate of 0.5 ml/min. The NLP fractions can be concentrated to approximately 0.1 mg/ml using molecular weight sieve filters (Vivascience) with molecular weight cutoffs of 50 kDa. Protein concentration can be determined using the ADV01 protein concentration kit (Cytoskeleton, Inc.).

Atomic force microscopy (AFM): Atomically flat Muscovite mica disks can be glued to metal substrates to secure them to the scanner of a stand-alone MFP-3D AFM (Asylum Research, Santa Barbara, Calif.). Two uL of solution at 1.0 μg/mL concentration can be incubated for two minutes on the mica surface in imaging buffer (10 mM MgCl₂, 10 mM Tris-HCl, and 0.1 M NaCl, adjusted to pH 8.0) then lightly rinsed. The AFM has a closed loop in the x, y, and z axes. Topographical images can be obtained with silicon nitride cantilever probes (MSCT, Veeco, Santa Barbara, Calif.) with a spring constant of 0.05 N/m. Images can be taken in alternate contact (AC) mode in liquid, with amplitudes below 20 nm and an amplitude setpoint at 50% tapping amplitude. Scan rates can be below 1.5 Hz. Height, amplitude, and phase images can be recorded. Diameters of particles in images can be determined by the full width half maximum (FWHM) analysis of contiguous particles in the slow scan direction, using IgorPro Wavemetrics software routines. Heights of particles can be determined from histogram analysis. Experiments can be carried out in a temperature controlled room at 23+/−1° C. Alternate contact mode or tapping mode can be used in AFM imaging to ensure minimal structural perturbation from tip-sample contact force. It is widely known that imaging nano-scale particles with AFM results in laterally broadening particle size due to tip convolution effects, but there exists a second broadening effect due to the finite response of imaging feedback in the fast scan direction (25). This latter effect can result in the NLPs shape appearing elongated in the fast scan direction. To limit tip convolution effects, only tips revealing sharp imaging can be used for analysis. To limit the broadening from slow imaging response, FWHM from a cross-section perpendicular to the fast scan direction can be used to determine particle diameter. To determine the reproducibility of the procedure for measuring NLP diameters, randomly selected particles can be repeatedly imaged to verify consistent diameter measurements.

NLP Modeling and Molecular Dynamics:

An idealized 35 nm₂ bilayer slab of DMPC lipids (a 740,000 atom system) can be created and equilibrated to give a lipid cross-sectional area of 52 Å² per lipid (15). Circular discs can be cut out of this slab at 0.5 nm diameter increments, in a range of 11 to 30 nm. The apoE422k crystal structure, PDB:1GS9 can be used as the basis for the protein modeling. Refolded E422k proteins can be modeled and tested in three different forms: fully extended, doubled-back/“hairpin”, and semi-extended/“double-hairpin” folds. Initial modeling of the NLPs can be based on a fully extended E422k assuming E422k NLPs would be similar to the “double belt” model reported for A-I NLPs (29-32) and previously suggested for E322K NLPs (33). This gave rise to a fold for E422k, with full hydrophobic association for the lipid, that is fully extended—as previously suggested for this portion of E4(10). However, at least two other folds are possible for E422k consistent with water exclusion of the hydrophobic acyl chains. The soluble folded-E422k contains three hairpin turns linking four helices (34). Forming a hairpin in the extended fold so that the E4 doubles back on itself creates a model with a self-contained double-belt This so-called “hairpin” model for lipoproteins has been previously suggested (35). For this fold to form, the loop between helices 2 and 3 of folded E422k would have to undergo a 180° rotation. A more energetically favorable rearrangement of E422k would involve only the opening of the 2-3 loop to produce a semi-extended “double-hairpin” model—that is, one containing two of the bends from the folded-E422k and involving a simple opening of the hydrophobic core of the folded-E422k to pack against the hydrophobic face of the lipid). Proteins can be aligned along the equator of the lipid disc and packed against the lipid discs of different sizes with the aim of fully enclosing the hydrophobic face of the lipids but not allowing the proteins to overlap each other. A 1 nanosecond (ns) equilibration molecular dynamics (MD) run can be then used to optimize the packing of the lipid against the protein. NLPs without gaps between lipid and protein can be then entered into a 40 ns MD simulation to determine the stability of the model. All MD simulations can be run using the CHARMM forcefield (36) in NAMD (37) with many of the settings and set-up details taken from previous simulations (38, 39). Simulations can be conducted on 1024 processors of Thunder, a 23 teraflop, 4096 Intel Itanium2 processor machine at the Livermore Computing Center. System set-up, analysis and image preparation can be done using, Gromacs (40), Pymol and VMD (41) with additional “in house” tcl/tk, perl and C++ scripts.

Verification of NLPs Modeling and Molecular Dynamics Through Simulations of E422k DAMPC NLPs

To determine if the discrete NLP diameters observed by AFM, TEM and IMS could be related to the number of E422k proteins in an NLP, NLP assembly can be computationally modeled using MD simulations. Computer modeling of E422k/DMPC NLPs can be used to reveal whether the multiple sizes are stable, where all the hydrophobic faces of the lipid bilayer disc structure can be matched by the protein numbers, sizes and stoichiometry. A double-belt model can be assumed; this criterion can be satisfied by three protein conformations; extended, hairpin, or double-hairpin. NLPs containing an odd number of E422k, the 19 nm (5 scaffold) and 28 nm (7 scaffold) NLPs, can be stable if at least one E422k adopted either the hairpin or double-hairpin motif.

Modeling of NLPs using fully extended double-belted E422k proteins could produce NLPs of diameter 14.5 and 23.5 nm respectively containing 4 and 6 copies of the E422k protein (FIG. 10). The extended conformation of the E4 protein implies that the protein are added in pairs to produce a double-belt and fully satisfy the hydrophobic matching required to stabilize the disc of lipid. Modeling could therefore not reproduce NLPs with diameters of 19 nm and 28 nm using fully extended double-belted E422k proteins.

Interestingly, MD simulations revealed that stable NLPs with diameters of 14.5, 19, 23.5 and 28 nm could all be formed using the hairpin and double-hairpin models of E422k. Furthermore, simulations revealed that the 19 nm and 28 nm NLPs respectively contain 5 and 7 E422k proteins with at least one of the proteins, if not more, forming a hairpin or double-hairpin. In addition, MD simulations revealed NLPs formed from either hairpin, double-hairpin and extended models of E422k have similar stability, with full hydrophobic matching at satisfactory lipid:protein ratios as the most important factor for stability. This suggests the possibility that any one NLP can contain E422k proteins in any one or more of the three different folded forms. The only constraint is that the 19 nm and 28 nm NLP are unlikely to be formed from E422k apolipoprotein that is only in the extended conformation. Simulations can be able to verify the experimental size data yielding the following size: protein number:lipid number ratios:14.5 nm:4:433, 19 nm:5:783, 23.5 nm:6:1270, and 28 nm:7:1780.

Additional models are illustrated in FIG. 11. In particular in panel FIG. 11A, a model of a Nanolipoprotein particle (NLP) is shown with a lipid bilayer in the middle and apolipoproteins encircling the hydrophobic portion of the lipids. In FIG. 11B, an NLP modeled with a bacteriorhodopsin monomer inserted in the hydrophobic lipid core is shown. In FIG. 11C, an NLP modeled with a bacteriorhodopsin trimer inserted in the hydrophobic lipid core is shown.

The computer modeling and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations indicate that these NLPs sizes can be related to a quantized number of the E422k lipoproteins surrounding the NLPs. Discrete sizes can be also observed in NLPs self-assembled from E422k/1,2-Dioleoyl-sn-Glycero-3-Phosphocholine (DOPC), A-I/DMPC, and commercially obtained NLPs purchased from Nanodisc, Inc. indicating this is likely a general and physically relevant phenomenon.

In summary, described herein are synthetic apolipoproteins based on native/naturally occurring homolog proteins that can be prepared using solid-phase peptide synthesis approaches combined with native chemical ligation methods to create analogs of full length apolipoproteins. The chemical synthesis is expected to allow introduction of non-natural amino acids, e.g., α,α′-dialkyl amino acids, with a periodicity that encourages both helix formation and amphipathicity. Such apolipoprotein analogs are expected to encourage, in some embodiments, facile and more complete NLP formation, enabling consideration of full spectrum of nanoparticle-based biotechnology applications ranging from therapeutic sequestration and delivery to energy/biofuel production to biopolymer production.

The examples set forth above are provided to give those of ordinary skill in the art a complete disclosure and description of how to make and use the embodiments of the materials, compositions, systems and methods of the disclosure, and are not intended to limit the scope of what the inventors regard as their disclosure.

All patents and publications mentioned in the specification are indicative of the levels of skill of those skilled in the art to which the disclosure pertains.

The entire disclosure of each document cited (including patents, patent applications, journal articles, abstracts, laboratory manuals, books, or other disclosures) in the Background, Summary, Detailed Description, and Examples is hereby incorporated herein by reference. All references cited in this disclosure are incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each reference had been incorporated by reference in its entirety individually. However, if any inconsistency arises between a cited reference and the present disclosure, the present disclosure takes precedence. Further, the computer readable form of the sequence listing of the ASCII text file IL-12402-PCT-Sequence-Listing_ST25 created on Sep. 8, 2016 and filed concurrently herewith is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

The terms and expressions which have been employed herein are used as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intention in the use of such terms and expressions of excluding any equivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof, but it is recognized that various modifications are possible within the scope of the disclosure claimed. Thus, it should be understood that although the disclosure has been specifically disclosed by embodiments, exemplary embodiments and optional features, modification and variation of the concepts herein disclosed can be resorted to by those skilled in the art, and that such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of this disclosure as defined by the appended claims.

It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting. As used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the content clearly dictates otherwise. The term “plurality” includes two or more referents unless the content clearly dictates otherwise. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which the disclosure pertains.

When a Markush group or other grouping is used herein, all individual members of the group and all combinations and possible subcombinations of the group are intended to be individually included in the disclosure. Every combination of components or materials described or exemplified herein can be used to practice the disclosure, unless otherwise stated. One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that methods, device elements, and materials other than those specifically exemplified may be employed in the practice of the disclosure without resort to undue experimentation. All art-known functional equivalents, of any such methods, device elements, and materials are intended to be included in this disclosure. Whenever a range is given in the specification, for example, a temperature range, a frequency range, a time range, or a composition range, all intermediate ranges and all subranges, as well as, all individual values included in the ranges given are intended to be included in the disclosure. Any one or more individual members of a range or group disclosed herein may be excluded from a claim of this disclosure. The disclosure illustratively described herein suitably may be practiced in the absence of any element or elements, limitation or limitations which is not specifically disclosed herein.

A number of embodiments of the disclosure have been described. The specific embodiments provided herein are examples of useful embodiments of the invention and it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that the disclosure can be carried out using a large number of variations of the devices, device components, methods steps set forth in the present description. As will be obvious to one of skill in the art, methods and devices useful for the present methods may include a large number of optional composition and processing elements and steps.

In particular, it will be understood that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure. Accordingly, other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims.

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1. A synthetic apolipoprotein comprising: a plurality of helical segments each having a primary structure configured to form an alpha helix secondary structure, wherein at least one helical segment of the plurality of helical segments comprises a plurality of hydrophobic amino acids and a plurality of hydrophilic amino acids positioned in the primary structure to provide an amphipathic alpha helix secondary structure, wherein the plurality of hydrophobic amino acids form an hydrophobic amino acid cluster and the plurality hydrophilic amino acids form an hydrophilic amino acid cluster, and wherein the at least one helical segment comprises one or more non-natural α,α′-dialkyl amino acids within the hydrophobic amino acid cluster.
 2. The synthetic apolipoprotein of claim 1, wherein one or more of the one or more non-natural α,α′-dialkyl amino acids independently presents in α′ position a C1-C4 linear or branched alkyl side chain.
 3. The synthetic apolipoprotein of claim 1, wherein one or more of the one or more non-natural α,α′-dialkyl amino acids independently presents in α′ position a methyl, ethyl propyl, or an isobutyric side chain.
 4. The synthetic apolipoprotein of claim 1, wherein the synthetic apolipoprotein comprises one or more helical segments having a length of 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 17, 18, 21, 22, 24, 25, 28, 29 or 31 amino acid residues.
 5. The synthetic apolipoprotein of claim 1, wherein at least one helical segment comprises from 15 to 100 amino acids.
 6. The synthetic apolipoprotein of claim 1, wherein at least one helical segment comprises 20 to 50 amino acids.
 7. A synthetic apolipoprotein comprising: a plurality of helical segments each having a primary structure configured to form an alpha helix secondary structure, wherein at least one helical segment of the plurality of helical segment comprises a plurality of hydrophobic amino acids and a plurality of hydrophilic amino acids, plurality of hydrophobic amino acids comprising at least one α,α′-dialkyl amino acid, the plurality of hydrophobic amino acids positioned in the primary structure with a periodicity i_(o)+x_(o) where i_(o) is a recurring position of a hydrophobic amino acid of plurality of hydrophobic amino acids in the primary structure and x_(o) is a number of amino acids in the helical segment between a first occurrence and a second occurrence of the recurring position i_(o), the plurality of hydrophilic amino acids positioned in the primary structure with a periodicity i_(i)+x_(i) where i_(i) is a recurring position of a hydrophilic amino acid of the plurality of hydrophilic amino acids in the primary structure and x_(i) is a number of amino acids in the helical segment between a first occurrence and a second occurrence of the recurring position i_(i) and wherein x_(o) and x_(i) are independently any integer number from 3 to
 9. 8. The synthetic apolipoprotein of claim 7, wherein x_(o) and x_(i) are independently 3 and/or
 4. 9. The synthetic apolipoprotein of claim 7, wherein the first occurrence i_(o) is at position 1 of the alpha helical segment and the additional occurrence are at positions 4, 5, 8, 9, 11, 12, and
 15. 10. The synthetic apolipoprotein of claim 7, wherein the first occurrence i_(o) is at position 1 of the alpha helical segment and the additional occurrence are at positions 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 28, 31, 34, 37, 40, 43, 46, and 49 of the alpha helical segment.
 11. The synthetic apolipoprotein of claim 7, wherein the first occurrence i₁ is at position 2 of the alpha helical segment and the additional occurrence are at positions 3, 6, 7, 9, 10, 13, and 14 of the alpha helical segment.
 12. The synthetic apolipoprotein of claim 7, wherein the plurality of helical segments is connected by a linker comprising 1 to 15 amino acids.
 13. The synthetic apolipoprotein of claim 7, wherein the plurality of helical segments is connected by a linker comprising 1 to 10 L-amino acids.
 14. A nanolipoprotein particle (NLP), comprising a membrane forming lipid, and a scaffold protein, wherein the scaffold protein is a synthetic apolipoprotein of claim
 1. 15. A method to provide a synthetic apolipoprotein comprising synthesizing a plurality of helical segments each helical segment comprising a plurality of hydrophobic amino acid and a plurality of hydrophilic amino acid, each helical segment having a primary structure configured to form an amphipathic alpha helical secondary structure in which the plurality of hydrophobic amino acid form a hydrophobic cluster and the plurality of hydrophilic amino acid form a hydrophilic cluster, each helical segment having an N-terminal end and a C-terminal end; and ligating the plurality of alpha-helical segments through the N-terminal end or the C-terminal end to form a synthetic apolipoprotein via at least one synthetic chemical linkage.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein at least one helical segment of the plurality of helical segment comprises one or more α,α′-dialkyl amino acids within the hydrophobic and/or the hydrophilic cluster.
 17. A method to form nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs) comprising synthesizing a synthetic apolipoprotein according to the method of claim 15; and combining the synthetic apolipoprotein with membrane forming lipids to form a nanolipoprotein particle.
 18. A nanolipoprotein particle (NLP), comprising a membrane forming lipid, and a scaffold protein, wherein the scaffold protein is a synthetic apolipoprotein of claim
 7. 